Nonviolence in Europe: Past and Present I will attempt to outline the historical evolution of European nonviolent movements, with their main steps and currents. Let me stress that this is a perfectly personal point of view, which may be rejected in favour of other points of view, equally personal and rejectable. The boxed inserts present the main movements of the three European countries I know best, because they are partly French speaking: France, Belgium and Switzerland. A directory would take much too much space. Nearly all the addresses can be found in 'Housmans Peace Diary and Directory", any travelling peace activist's essential directory! 1 Origins of the Peace Movement As far as I know, the slow emergence of a radical peace movement in Europe was linked to historically pacifist Christian sects and churches (Anabaptists, Mennonites, Brethren, Friends - said "Quakers", etc.), as well as to pacifist minorities within the big "official" churches (Roman Catholic and miscellaneous "Protestant" churches). The values supported by most of these religious movements were (and still are): God's peace ("eirene"), absolute respect of life (often enacted through vegetarianism and conscientious objection), human brotherhood. The means they put forward are mainly personal, internalised (purification, fast, prayer...). So, it is no wonder that these movements sometimes evolved - or tended since their origins - towards a social passivity, a withdrawal from "secular fights" and the rejection of conflicts. (I'd like to point out the most famous exception: the Quakers, who have been involved since the 17th Century in social movements. It is interesting to note that the Roman Catholic Church celebrates this year as the centenary of its first "social doctrine".) Our second seminal historical source was the workers movement: anti-capitalist, internationalist and (therefore) antiwar. Socialist, anarchist and unionist parties and movements, especially between World Wars 1 and 2, spearheaded the European peace movement. Their values were (are) social and economic justice, and the dignity of disadvantaged people. Their means (rallies, strikes, boycotts...) are essentially collective and externalised - at risk of a lack of "interior search" and of an evolution (which they claim) toward an ideology of violent revolution. Between these two fields, religious pacifism and working class pacifism, was set up a barrier of suspicion, of misunderstanding, even sometimes of contempt.2 There were, of course exceptions, such as the organisation of Easter Rallies in the sixties, or movements like the "Christian Socialists". Exploring Nonviolent Means It would take too long to outline in detail how modern nonviolent action's "founding fathers", namely Gandhi, King, Chavez, Dolci etc., were able to merge and to reconcile ethical demands with social needs; nor will I discuss the principles and tenets of what we call nonviolence: NVT already published many papers on that theme! Unfortunately, the progress of nonviolent action was hindered for a long time by what I think was a double refusal: traditional left movements saw in nonviolence just more "religious stuff", whereas religious pacifists saw in it just revisited political extremism. (Once more, I apologize for making gross generalizations - there were, of course, exceptions on both sides.) Anyway, I think it was "May '68" (the students' radical protest movement) which allowed a real flowering of nonviolence in Europe. In the following years, indeed, emerged many new "social movements": conservationist, feminist, third world, fourth world, educational, consumers', international solidarity, etc. These movements were mainly composed of young people born in the petit bourgeoisie, familiar (even if superficially) with both Christian "eirenic" ideals and working class tenets and struggles. The enormous stir created by Martin Luther King's assassination, in April '68, probably contributed to an unprecedented diffusion of nonviolent means and principles. At this time, nonviolence was most often "of the left". Its explicit ideal was 'base-controlled socialism'3. It was mostly concerned with community action and conscientious objection. Nonviolent training, born of the training provided to their activists by King's team, stressed: 1) organization of actions aiming at social change (campaigns against nuclear plants or weapons; against militarism - under its different aspects: bases, arms trade, conscription...;' struggles for women's or migrants' rights; etc.): activists were trained in strategy, peacekeeping, behaviour towards the police, media relations... 2) dynamics of the action group itself, inspired both by the Quakers - e.g. consensus decision-making - and by psycho-social research: group facilitation respecting every member, techniques of efficient communication, nonverbal messages... During the '70s and later, the West-East arms race increased worries about the future. To traditional peace rallies were now added - and this was new - the diffusion of the writings of several researchers (Gene Sharp, Adam Roberts, Theodor Ebert, Johan Galtung etc.) about possible social defense. Intense reflection and action developed on this theme within the peace movement, producing and pressing ahead concepts as transarmament, arms factories reconversion, etc. The growing number of conscientious objectors reinforced their fights: one after the other, European countries where conscription is mandatory, conceded status to their objectors, creating a "civil service" (which replaced military service for all "acknowledged" COs). Individualistic Setback After '85 began, more or less everywhere, a setback towards individualism. Several factors may explain it: the new trend to "traditional values" (matrimony, family, professional career, comfort) which had been questioned by the previous generation; the quest for a personal economical security created by growing unemployment; the incredibly growing number of opportunities of personal development; also, let's admit it, the dreadful sterility of numerous "action groups", drowning the enthusiasm of the first days in endless unproductive meetings and masses of minutes, proclamations, platforms... So, many former activists turned off the idea - swiftly judged anachronistic - of transforming the world. Those remaining have grown older, their predominant worries are now conflicts with their partner or in upbringing their children... The new activists on their side, are more pragmatic than their elders and prefer to act within a less structured environment, emphasising short term action. Strategic thinking has gone out of fashion! Hence, nonviolent training had to refocus on everyday life, stressing more and more on the skills taught in social work (Rogers, Gordon, Transactional Analysis...) One speaks less of the tenets of nonviolence; but maybe this is the very opportunity to speak to many more people of a more "getatable" nonviolence. Peculiarly, many trainers work now towards children, parents and teachers, as much as towards the teaching process itself. So called "new games" soar in an incredible manner, and it will probably take at least one generation before we can judge their social consequences. At the same time, Marxist vocabulary and references to "base-controlled socialism"3 have been abandoned. As to the nonviolent actions themselves, of course they are evolving as a consequence of the new way of life: * Either they are organised on the sole and scanty social base of the old and staunch activists, reinforced by a sprinkling of new people. * Or they take note of most people's growing reticence to any group endeavour (I don't say mass endeavour: in urgent need good old rallies still have a great future!). So do they aim at having people writing letters (protest campaigns), or making phone calls (harassment of State agencies...), or faxing ("Fax China"), or sending telexes (miscellaneous emergency networks), or boycotting taxes, etc. All of which can be done at home, in the few empty spaces left in a more and more frenetic agenda. The status obtained on behalf of conscientious objectors between (roughly) 1970 and '85 are often queried; not only are there fights aimed at their improvement, but other, more radical campaigns have come back to life, demanding the end of mandatory conscription (see heading "Switzerland"). Within the Churches (and associated movements), the last few years have shown a renewal of social thinking and action, bound to the so called "Peace, Justice and Safeguard of Creation" process. This leads to a quest for appropriate means of action and, therefore, a growing interest in nonviolent action. In this evolution lies, I believe, one of the biggest hopes for the next few years. Christian activists had usually kept themselves apart from "May '68" and the social movements which followed, mainly agnostic or atheist and often aggressive towards any expression of religious thinking. I hope that the still active, unresigned changing forces of that time will now be able to join this new boat sailing for peace. BOX--------------------------------------------------------------------------- France In France as everywhere, there are many movements. To name them all, or even just to detail aims and actions of the main ones, would be far too long. So, let's try to mostly show tendencies, with the actors of these tendencies. The peace movement and nonviolent action turn mainly around two axis: - the Movement for a Nonviolent Alternative (MAN) 1, whose origins lay in "base-controlled socialism"2, fosters nonviolence without religious references, including support of conscientious objectors, the fight against the arms trade and military expenditure. It strives for agreement with both State and military command to create an embryo of social defence, along with military defence. - The Peace Society of France (UPF) represents a radical peace and antimilitaristic movement. It rejects any compromising with military institutions, with the State or any "power" in general - refusing, thus, any civil service. As well MAN as UPF are affiliated to War Resisters' International (WRI) and have numerous local or regional groups. The Communities of the Ark (grounded by Lanza del Vasto on the model of Gandhian ashrams) represent a more spiritual aspect of nonviolence, besides "classical" groups like the national branch of Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR) or the Society of Friends (Quakers). The Vigilance House in Taverny tries actively to reconcile Christian value with community-change nonviolence. The "Stop (nuclear) Tests" Collective is born from a fast during the Seoul Conference "Justice, Peace and Safeguard of Creation" in March '90. It groups most previously mentioned - and other organisations, to the specific aim of banning nuclear tests in Mururoa (or elsewhere! ). In many different circles, local Collectives for Peace emerged during the Gulf War, resulting now in a national campaign against the arms trade and for a reconversion of arms industry. Other organisations are more specialised in research, training or documentation. Of course, the objectors have their own organisations; the Movement of Conscientious Objectors (MCO), the Coordinating Committee for the Civil Service (CCSC). Lastly, numerous international organizations have a French branch: previously mentioned FOR and Quakers, the International Peace Bureau (IPB), International Civil Service (SCI), International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW), Women for Peace, Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF), Peace Brigades International (PBI), Greenpeace - The "Greens", as their namesakes in many countries, explicitly refer to nonviolence in their program. To those who want to keep informed, I recommend the following periodicals: * Alternatives Nonviolentes, a quarterly issue of reflection and information on nonviolence in all of its aspects and everywhere in the world. * Non-Violence Actualite, edited by the MAN, monthly reports nonviolent struggles in France, and all over the world, and strives to give a nonviolent analysis of current events. * Union Pacifiste, monthly published by the UPF, does the same on pacifist and antimilitaristic issues. * Damocles is focused on conflicts and social defence; it also appears in English, five times a year! * The Anarchist Federation publishes an excellent weekly paper, Le Monde Libertaire. Anyway, you may write asking for information in English, there will always be someone who understands! Notes: 1. All organisations' names are translated, but the abbreviations are the original ones. 2. See footnote 3 of main text. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ BOX--------------------------------------------------------------------------- Belgium As a bilingual country, Belgium often has the same structures twice, once for French speaking people and once for Flemishes. As I don't speak Flemish, I know the French groups far better. In Brussels, a "Peace House" groups many excellent organizations of either language. Amongst them, the MIR/IRG (= FOR/WRI) (joint in French speaking Belgium) and the Forum voor Vredesaktie, Flemish branch of WRI, are leading great work on nonviolence, peace, Peace Brigades International etc. The Civil Service of the Youth Confederation (CSCJ) focuses on conscientious objection and civil service. The International Peace Information Service (IPIS) in Antwerp, and the Peace Research and Information Group (GRIP) in Brussels, are of first rate in their respective themes. The last one publishes the very valuable 'Notes et Documents'. The National Action Committee for Peace and Development (CNAPD) groups, for the struggles relating to its name, many social change movements, many of which have their centre of interest elsewhere: environment, human rights etc. In Namur, the University of Peace (independent from the United Nations, unlike the one in Costa Rica) has specialised in nonviolent action and conflict resolution trainings. The European Bureau for Conscientious Objection (EBCO) and the Quaker Council for European Affairs (QCEA) are both based in Brussels, the administrative centre of European Communities. As well, Belgium has basically same international organizations as mentioned for France. I would like to stress the crucial role played by Belgium, for all the French speaking area, in developing theoretical research on nonviolence and nonviolent training. Unfortunately, a rightward shift in the Belgian government deprived the Peace House of its many conscientious objectors (doing their civil service there) and unemployed people (in State paid schemes), who used to contribute to its work. This decline, by the way, choked the many excellent periodicals it used to publish. Nevertheless, the Charleroi group of MIR/IRG goes on with sporadic publication of "Fiches documentaires pour une autre defense", information and research documents. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ BOX--------------------------------------------------------------------------- Switzerland As in Belgium, campaigning is hampered and structures are multiplied by cultural and linguistic differences (four national languages: German, French, Italian and Romanche!). Another very sad characteristic: Together with Greece and Cyprus, this very old "democracy" is the last "non-ex-socialist" country in Europe which has no status for its conscientious objectors, who still get sentenced to jail. (A reform of the legal system is pending, but...would worsen the situation!) But Switzerland was the first European country to vote in a referendum for or against the abolition of the army (November 1989; 35% of the electors answered "yes", albeit no one with any knowledge of Swiss political life contemplated the possibility of more than 10% when the campaign started!) So, support and counselling to conscientious objectors remain one of the key activities in Switzerland. It is organised by some specialised Centres and, in the French speaking part, by the Martin Luther King Centre (CMLK). This Centre also provides documentation and information about nonviolence, publishes K comme King five times a year, and founded a Nonviolence Trainers' Collective (CFNV). It is affiliated to the War Resisters' International (WRI). For the last few years, a Conscientious Objectors' Association of Switzerland (ASOC) has aimed to represent all COs in public opinion and the media. The "Essor" is a very old, monthly paper, independent of any organization, analysing and informing about nonviolence. The Group for a Switzerland without an army (GSOA), which initiated the '89 referendum, still spearheads the peace movement with its many local and regional groups. It's a section of WRI. As in France, the Gulf War accelerated - if not created - a campaign against the arms trade and for a reconversion of arms industry. In the German speaking Switzerland is the "Swiss Council of Peace", mainly concerned with antimilitaristic matters. It publishes the very interesting "Friedenszeitung" (monthly). As well, the same national branches of international organizations reported under "France" are to be found in Switzerland. Moreover, Geneva being a secondary base of the United Nations, houses the international secretariat of countless organisations, linked or not linked to the UN; e.g. International Peace Bureau (IPB), the Quakers United Nations Office (QUNO), the International Organization for a School Instrument of Peace (EIP), the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF), the Brethren Service, the World Council of Churches (WCC), the World Information Clearing Centre... ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Philippe Beck Footnotes: 1. It can be ordered from: Housmans, 5 Caledonian Rd, London Nl 9DY, UK (costs $A11.95). 2. Liberation Theology allowed certain regions of the world to escape this fruitless mistrust. 3. In French: "socialisme autogestionnaire". It describes a socialist society in which the power wouldn't be confiscated by a central State or Party, but thoroughly distributed at each level of organization of every infrastructure or superstructure. Note: Philippe is Swiss. He has been involved for about thirteen years in many nonviolent struggles, e.g. supporting conscientious objection, Sandinist Nicaragua, Peace Brigades International, or against militarism, Olympic Games in Lausanne, etc. Since 1983, he was professionally involved with secretariat and facilitation of miscellaneous nonviolent bodies in Switzerland, as well as nonviolent training. Philippe is visiting Australia, probably for the whole of 1991. Any remark, concerning the present paper, or question e.g. about whereabouts of any mentioned organization, can be addressed to Philippe via NVT.